Which of the following can be accurately described by a “deterministic” model, that is, a model which does not require any concept of probability? (a) The position of a small particle in space (b) The velocity of an object dropped from the leaning tower of Pisa (c) The lifetime of a heavy smoker (d) The value of a stock which was purchased for $20 one month ago (e) The number of servers at a large data center which crash on a given day